Harpsichords and Clavichords
Date: 2012-05-13T00:00:00+00:00
Keywords: Harpsichord; Clavichord

The Project Gutenberg eBook of Harpsichords and Clavichords

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Harpsichords and Clavichords

Author: Cynthia A. Hoover

Release date: May 13, 2012 [eBook #39690]

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39690

Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer, Joseph Cooper and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPSICHORDS AND CLAVICHORDS ***

CYNTHIA A. HOOVER

DIVISION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY

Harpsichords and Clavichords

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS
CITY OF WASHINGTON
1969

Cover: Virginal by Giovanni Battista Boni, 1617 (see pages 22-25)
Photo: Robert Lautman

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 40 cents

Harpsichords and Clavichords

The harpsichord and the clavichord represent the two most important types of stringed keyboard instruments used from the 15th through the 18th centuries. By the 19th century, the piano had become the most important domestic keyboard instrument.

In this booklet are described a few of the restored Smithsonian harpsichords and clavichords that are occasionally on exhibit in the Hall of Musical Instruments or in use in the series of concerts sponsored by the Division of Musical Instruments. Models showing how the sound is produced on these instruments are also on exhibit.

A complete list of the keyboard collection is found in A Checklist of Keyboard Instruments at the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1967), which is available from the Division of Musical Instruments, Smithsonian Institution, Washington ,D.C. 20560.

Harpsichords

The harpsichord and its smaller relatives, the virginal and the spinet, have strings that are plucked. The harpsichord is wing-shaped, most virginals and spinets are either rectangular or polygonal.

When the harpsichord key is pressed, a wooden jack is raised so that a quill or leather plectrum inserted into the jack tongue plucks the string. When the key is released, the jack falls back into place, the pivoted tongue allowing the plectrum to pass the string without plucking it. A felt damper (inserted in a slit at the top of the jack) touches the string to stop the sound.

Figure 1 shows the jack arrangement in an 18th century English spinet. The second jack from the left on the front row has been raised so that its quill is just about to pluck the string. Note that the quill has lifted the string above its rest position.

Inherent in the design of a harpsichord is the limitation of dynamic nuance. The sound of a harpsichord is not greatly altered by increasing or lessening the impact of fingers on the keys. Rather, the dynamic level and quality of sound can be changed by varying the number of strings plucked (many harpsichords have three sets of strings: two sets tuned in unison [8′] and a third tuned an octave higher [4′]), by varying the location of the plucking point, and by muting the strings with felt or leather pads.

The tone of a keyboard instrument is also affected by its general outline, the material and thickness of the soundboard, the length and material of the strings, and the type of case construction. The case must be strong enough to counteract the tension of the strings and yet light enough to allow the sound to resonate.

1. Harpsichord action. Photo: Robert Lautman.

Among the Smithsonian’s extensive keyboard collection are fine examples of harpsichords that represent several of the major national trends in harpsichord building: the Flemish, Italian, English, and French.

Flemish Harpsichords

Antwerp was the harpsichord-making center of northern Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. The earliest examples of harpsichords had only one keyboard and one or two sets of 8′ strings. The progressive Flemish makers added a second keyboard and another set of strings, tuned an octave higher than the others, which allowed a wider range in pitch and more variety in sound. Later French and English harpsichords were largely derived from the Flemish style.

Virginal, 1620; made by Andreas Ruckers, Antwerp One manual; Range C/E-c^3 (apparent); 1×8′

2. Ruckers virginal: Plan view.

3. Ruckers virginal: Full view.

4. Ruckers virginal: Detail of keyboard.
Photo: Robert Lautman

5. Ruckers virginal: View of soundboard and lid.
Photo: Robert Lautman

Instruments built by the famous Ruckers family were and are still highly prized. Although simply painted on the exterior, the case of this virginal is decorated on the inside in characteristic Ruckers style. Block-printed papers cover the interior of the case; the inside of the lid bears a Latin motto and the soundboard is painted with flowers and arabesques. Figure 4 illustrates a detail of the block printing, and of the keys. The arcades on the end of the keys appear to be cut from several layers of leather which were then applied to the key fronts.

This instrument is tuned a fourth higher than it might appear. When the C key is pressed, the note sounded is F, a fourth above.

Short-Octave Tuning

Since chromatic notes in the lowest octave of the keyboard were not often needed in the music of the 16th and 17th centuries, the practice of short-octave tuning was adopted.

Although the lowest note on a short-octave instrument appears to be E, the range was actually extended down to C. (The notation C/E indicates this arrangement.)

NORMAL TUNING | SHORT-OCTAVE TUNING

A typical short-octave instrument of the 16th and 17th centuries would be tuned in the following manner: E (1) is tuned down to C (I); F♯ (2) tuned to D (II); and G♯ (3) tuned to E (III).

Harpsichord, 1745; made by Johann Daniel Dulcken, Antwerp Two manuals; Range FF-f^3; 2×8′, 1×4′, lute

Typical of northern European instruments, the Dulcken harpsichord has a heavy case, two keyboards or manuals, and two 8′ choirs and one 4′ choir. It also has a lute stop, whose jacks, very close to the nut, pluck one set of unison strings to produce a pungent, nasal tone.

6. Dulcken harpsichord: Full view. Photo: Robert Lautman

7. Dulcken harpsichord: Front view. Photo: Robert Lautman.

8. Dulcken harpsichord: Plan view.

9. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of keyboards. Photo: Robert Lautman

10. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of soundboard. Photo: Robert Lautman

Italian Harpsichords

Typical Italian harpsichords had two choirs of unison strings and two jacks for each key. They were of much lighter construction than those made in northern Europe—the sides of the case were only about an eighth of an inch thick. These fragile instruments were usually placed in heavier, often elaborately decorated, outer cases from which the harpsichord could be removed.

Harpsichord, 1693; maker unknown, Italy One manual; Range GG-c^3 (no GG♯); 2×8′

The typical construction of Italian harpsichords can be seen in this large Italian instrument. The original nameboard is missing; however, as was common practice, the maker marked the date on the tail of the lowest and highest keys.

The Italian harpsichord serves as an ideal basso continuo keyboard instrument because it blends well in instrumental combinations. Its clean, crisp sound also allows individual lines to emerge clearly from a polyphonic musical texture.

11. Italian harpsichord (1693): Full view of instrument in outer case.

12. Italian harpsichord (1693): Plan view.

13. Italian harpsichord (1693): Detail of keyboard. Photo: Robert Lautman.

Harpsichord, 1694; made by Nicolaus DeQuoco, Italy One-manual: Range C-c^3 (no C♯); 2×8′, 1×4′

This instrument is one of the few examples of an Italian harpsichord with a third set of strings tuned an octave higher than the two unison choirs. It is possible that the third set was added to this instrument sometime after it was constructed with two unison registers.

Figure 15 shows the instrument before restoration; Figures 14 and 16 show the restored harpsichord removed from its heavy outer case and details of the handsome keyboard and moldings typical of Italian instruments.

14. DeQuoco harpsichord: Plan view.

15. DeQuoco harpsichord: Full view of instrument in outer case.

16. DeQuoco harpsichord: View of instrument removed from outer case.

17. DeQuoco harpsichord: Inscription on wrest plank.

18. DeQuoco harpsichord: Detail of keyboard. Photo: Robert Lautman.

Virginal, 1617; made by Giovanni Battista Boni, Cortona One manual; Range C/E-f^3; 1×8′

The smaller virginals and spinets were commonly found in homes of modest means, as well as in royal courts. This polygonal virginal has six split keys which represent a complicated tuning scheme.

Keys 1-2: This is a system of short-octave tuning (see Ruckers Virginal) in which the two lowest accidentals are split into two sections. The back section is tuned to the apparent accidental, the front section to the short octave. Thus, on the Boni, the back section of the bottom split key is tuned F♯, the front section is tuned D; the back section of the second lowest split key is tuned A♭, the front section is tuned E.

Keys 3-6: The top four keys are split to provide for enharmonic tuning—that is, both D♯ and E♭, G♯ and A♭. In the meantone system of tuning, which was the prevailing tuning of the time, scales distant from the key of C were often out of tune. To improve the intonation of these scales, some makers divided some of the accidental keys to provide alternate tunings.

19. Boni virginal: Full view.

Boni virginal: 20. Plan view.

21. Boni virginal: View of key board. Photo: Robert Lautman.

English Harpsichords

In the 18th century, London became a center of harpsichord making. The two most important makers, Jacob Kirckman and Burkat Shudi, were Swiss immigrants who first apprenticed with Hermann Tabel, a Flemish harpsichord maker who had also emigrated to England. In America, where English culture was highly regarded, Thomas Jefferson owned a Kirckman harpsichord, Francis Hopkinson a Shudi and Broadwood.

The heavy cases of the typical English instruments were veneered in walnut, mahogany, and later satinwood, and rested on trestle stands. The usual range was five octaves: FF-f^3 for harpsichords; GG-g^3 for spinets (and organs). In general, the sound produced on an English harpsichord is more thick and lush than the sound of instruments from other European centers.

Spinet, about 1710; made by Thomas Hitchcock, London One manual; Range GG-g^3; 1×8′

The spinet, a member of the harpsichord family, was a popular domestic keyboard instrument in England and America during the 18th century and was mentioned in many American diaries and inventories of that time. The spinet often served as the keyboard instrument for the household that could not afford or did not have room for the harpsichord or organ.

The Hitchcock family supplied many spinets for early 18th-century gentility. Note in Figure 24 the handsome brass hinges, one of many examples of the beautiful hardware used by English builders. This instrument is quilled with crow quill, the most common material used for plectra at that time. A detail of the jacks and stringing is shown in Figure 1.

22. Hitchcock spinet: Full view and nameboard.

23. Hitchcock spinet: Plan view.

24. Hitchcock spinet: Top view. Photo: Robert Lautman.

Harpsichord, about 1743; made by Burkat Shudi, London Two manuals; Range FF-f^3 (no FF♯; 2×8′, 1×4′, lute, buff

Most of the stops on early harpsichords were changed by hand. From left to right, the stop knobs shown in Figure 25 operate the following registers: lute, octave (4′), buff (muting the second unison by pressing soft leather pads against the strings), first unison (8′), and second unison (8′). The lute stop plays from the upper manual, the first unison from both manuals, and the remaining stops from the lower manual.

Figures 25 and 26 show the instrument before restoration. The name batten on which the date of 1747 appears is not original to the instrument. The date of the instrument is based on the serial number 144 stamped on the lower keyboard. From all records it appears Shudi would have built an instrument with that serial number in 1743.

25. Shudi harpsichord: View of keyboards.

26. Shudi harpsichord: Plan view.

27. Shudi harpsichord: Full view.

French Harpsichords

Although Paris claimed many harpsichord builders, few French harpsichords remain today. Many were destroyed at the time of the Revolution and later when firewood was needed to heat Conservatoire classrooms.

French builders, the most famous among them the Blanchet family and Pascal Taskin, spent much of their time reconstructing Ruckers harpsichords to satisfy the musical and decorative tastes of 18th-century France. Included in this reconstruction or ravalement were the extension of compass (usually from C-c^3 to FF-f^3), enlargement of the case and soundboard, and often replacement of keyboards, jacks, and registers.

Housed in elegantly painted cases supported by cabriole or fluted legs, typical French harpsichords had two manuals and were praised for their lightness of touch. Later 18th-century developments included a fourth register called peau de buffle (plectra of soft chamois-type leather) and knee levers to operate the registers.

Harpsichord, 1760; made by Benoist Stehlin, Paris Two manuals; Range FF-f^3; 2×8′, 1×4′, buff, shove coupler

In recent years the Smithsonian was fortunate to acquire one of the few remaining French harpsichords. The builder’s name is known from the design on the soundboard rose which includes the initials “B” and “S”; also, the name “Benoist Stehlin” is inscribed on two of the jacks. The 1760 date is painted on the left side of the soundboard. An inventory of Stehlin’s workshop and house made at the time of his death in 1774 lists a Ruckers harpsichord altered by Stehlin along with several other instruments in various stages of completion. Figures 28 and 30 show the instrument before its restoration.

28. Stehlin harpsichord: Full view.

This instrument was restored to playing condition in the conservation laboratory of the Division of Musical Instruments in 1968. Typical of most French instruments, it is equipped with a shove coupler, which enables the player to operate both manuals from the lower keyboard by shoving the upper keyboard away from him. In this pushed-back position, wooden uprights (dogs) attached to the upper surface of the far ends of the lower key levers couple the two manuals and cause the upper manual keys to descend when the lower manual keys are pressed.

29. Stehlin harpsichord: Detail of rose.

30. Stehlin harpsichord: Plan view.

Clavichords

Dynamic shadings are possible in the clavichord, as in the piano, through variation of finger pressure. In both, the strings are struck—by metal tangents in the clavichord and by leather or felt hammers in the piano.

In the clavichord the strings extend over a soundboard bridge on the player’s right and are damped (stopped from vibrating) by strips of cloth on the left. The metal hammer (tangent) mounted in the end of the key strikes the string and continues to touch it as long as the player presses the key. The tangent, while touching the string, divides it into two segments—the segment on the right being free to vibrate, the segment on the left being damped by the cloth. When the key is released, the cloth damps the entire string.

Figure 31 shows a player depressing a clavichord key (middle c). The tangent at the far end of the key lever has been raised so that it has struck the strings and has lifted them above rest position. The damping cloth on the left of this raised string can also be seen.

Known as early as the 15th century, the clavichord produces tones, though limited in volume, that are very expressive and even capable of vibrato (Bebung). Because it lacks carrying power, the clavichord historically was a solo or practice instrument, for it could not be heard in combination with other instruments or with the voice.

31. Clavichord action. Photo: Robert Lautman.

Fretted Clavichord, about 1700; maker unknown, Germany Unfretted Clavichord, 18th century; maker unknown, Germany

The clavichord was usually housed in a rectangular case which rested upon a simple stand. The range of the earlier instruments was about four octaves. By the 18th century the range had been expanded to five octaves.

The larger, later clavichords had separate strings for each key and were unfretted or bundfrei. Many smaller and earlier clavichords were fretted (gebunden), having some strings that would produce more than one pitch when struck at different points by adjacent keys.

Figure 32 shows the fretted clavichord keyboard in more detail. Tangents on keys numbered 16 and 17 strike the same strings to produce the notes e♭ and e. Some other fretted notes shown in the picture include: keys 18 and 19 (f and f♯), keys 20 and 21 (g and g♯), keys 23 and 24 (b♭ and b), and keys 25 and 26 (middle c and c♯). Figure 31 is also a detail from this clavichord.

The Smithsonian clavichord shown in Figures 35 and 36, in unrestored condition, is typical of the large unfretted instruments that became standard in Germany by the mid-18th century and for which Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach wrote many solo keyboard compositions.

32. Fretted clavichord: Detail of fretting. Photo: Robert Lautman.

33. Fretted clavichord: Full view.

34. Fretted clavichord: Plan view.

35. Unfretted clavichord: Full view.

36. Unfretted clavichord: Plan view.

By the beginning of the 18th century the desire was strong for a more expressive keyboard instrument to use in ensembles. Harpsichord builders added new stops, devised special leather plectra, and added Venetian swell effects and other innovations to alter the sound of the harpsichord. But no matter what they did, they could not produce enough dynamic gradation to satisfy musical taste. The clavichord was capable of dynamic nuance, but it lacked carrying power.

Instrument builders, seeking to satisfy the demands created by the change in sensibility and musical taste, turned naturally to the domestic instruments they knew best—the harpsichord and clavichord—as the process of adaptation began. For this reason, as the pianoforte was developed and perfected, the general proportions and arrangement of the grand piano resembled those of the harpsichord. Similarly, the relation between the keyboard and strings, the scaling, and other features of the square piano resembled those of the clavichord.

By the beginning of the 19th century the pianoforte, an instrument capable of subtle changes between soft and loud, had become the most important domestic and concert keyboard instrument. After 1800 few clavichords or harpsichords were built or used until they were revived by early music enthusiasts at the end of the 19th century.

Selected Bibliography

Boalch, Donald. Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord. London: George Ronald, 1955.

Hirt, Franz Josef. Meisterwerke des Klavierbaus. Olten, Switzerland: Urs Graf-Verlag, 1955.

Hubbard, Frank. Harpsichord Regulating and Repairing. Boston: Tuner’s Supply, Inc., 1963.

Hubbard, Frank. Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965.

James, Philip. Early Keyboard Instruments. London: Peter Davies, 1930.

Ripin, Edwin M. “The Early Clavichord,” Musical Quarterly, 53(4) (October 1967): 518-538.

Russell, Raymond. The Harpsichord and the Clavichord. London: Faber and Faber, 1959.

Shortridge, John D. “Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th Centuries.” United States National Museum Bulletin, 225 (15): 93-107, 1960.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPSICHORDS AND CLAVICHORDS ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG™ LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg electronic works provided that:

- • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”

- • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.

- • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.

- • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg

Project Gutenberg is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 41 Watchung Plaza #516, Montclair NJ 07042, USA, +1 (862) 621-9288. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

back

Table of Contents

- CYNTHIA A. HOOVER

- Harpsichords and Clavichords

- SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS CITY OF WASHINGTON 1969

- Harpsichords and Clavichords

- THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG™ LICENSE